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GRADUATE
SCHOOLS AND CAREERS IN PSYCHOLOGY
Information
provided by the Millsaps Psychology Club
Getting into
a graduate program in psychology can be rather complex and confusing.
There are many different paths you can take and a variety of hurdles.
BUT DON'T PANIC YET! Take it one step at a time.
MENU:
THE DIFFERENT
AREAS OF GRADUATE STUDY
There are several types of graduate programs in psychology, the
most common ones being: experimental, developmental, social, biopsychology,
cognitive, clinical, counseling, school, and organizational psychology
(also known as industrial-organizational psychology, or simply
"IO") . These last four (clinical, counseling, school, and IO)
are considered by the American Psychological Association (APA)
to be the four distinct areas of applied psychology.
Other more specialized graduate programs might be devoted to
sports psychology, psychology and law, or behavioral medicine.
Large psychology departments at large universities may include
many of the most common programs, but most universities will only
have a few of them.
The best source of information about these various programs is
the book Graduate Study in Psychology published by the
American Psychological Association. It lists, by state, most of
the graduate psychology programs in this country. It includes
information about admission criteria, how many students are accepted
each year, number of faculty members, and where to get more information
and an application. There is a copy in the Psych Department!!
You can order Graduate Study in Psychology directly from:
American Psychological Association, Order Department, P.O. Box
2710, Hyattsville, MD, 20784 (800) 374 2721
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WHAT TO DO TO GET IN
Generally speaking, getting into graduate school is a game of
chance. Many programs are very competitive. There's no guarantee
that you will get into the exact program at the exact university
that you want. But there are some things you can do to optimize
that possibility:
-- GPA
Grade point average is one index that many graduate schools take
very seriously. Obviously, the higher your GPA the better your
chances of getting in. Very competitive programs may look for
GPAs at 3.5 or higher. Less competitive programs may accept 3.O
or a bit lower.
-- Letters of Recommendation
Most graduate schools weigh letters very highly. Strong letters
of recommendation can compensate for GPAs and GREs that are a
bit weak. Your letters of recommendation could become one of your
greatest assets! At Millsaps, especially in our Psychology Department,
you have the unique opportunity to get to know the faculty. Get
involved in the Psychology Club and other activities in the department.
Talk to the faculty. The better they know you, the more likely
they can write a convincing letter. When you ask a professor to
write a letter for you, be sure to give the professor some written
information about yourself, the courses you took with him/her,
your grades, any activities you undertook in our department or
on campus, etc. And here's one way you can work towards getting
a truly excellent letter....
-- Research With Faculty
In our department you have the unique opportunity to work closely
with professors on research projects. Take advantage of this!
When professors get to know you in this capacity, they can write
a very strong letter of recommendation (assuming you didn't screw
up on the project!). Successfully completing these projects also
demonstrates to graduate schools that you are a motivated person
who can work independently.
In the past students have presented papers at conferences or
published articles with the faculty based on such projects. Many
graduate programs will be impressed by this! It is unusual for
undergraduates to do this sort of thing. Graduate programs that
emphasize experimental research may be very impressed by your
having been actively involved in research, especially if the research
led to a conference presentation or a publication. Programs that
emphasize training in counseling (and not experimental research)
may be impressed by projects involving case studies, literature
reviews, and experiential learning even if these projects did
not lead to a publication or conference presentation.
-- GREs
Many graduate schools will require you to take the Graduate Record
Exam. That's right! It's the SATs all over again, but on a slightly
bigger scale! The GREs consist of three sections: verbal, math
(quantitative), and the analytic writing section (which measures
abstract thinking). Some schools will also require you to take
the "advanced" portion of the test, which for you would be in
psychology (it consists of multiple choice questions pertaining
to all the different fields within psychology).
Usually programs will use a cut off score. If you don't get above
a certain score, they may not even look at your application. Graduate
Study in Psychology lists the average GRE scores for students
who are accepted into a program. A few less competitive graduate
schools may not have a cut off score or may not require you to
take the GREs at all.
It is very unwise to take the GREs cold. Prepare for it. Bookstores
sell manuals that describe strategies for taking the test and
provide sample exams. There also are classes you can take, such
as the Kaplan preparatory courses. A good way to study for the
Advanced test in psychology is to get a good intro psychology
textbook and memorize as much of it as you can.
-- Your Personal Statement
There probably is wide variation in how graduate schools react
to your written personal statement in which you describe yourself
and your reasons for going to graduate school. Some might take
it quite seriously, others may not pay much attention. Play it
safe. Spend some time on it and prepare a well thought out letter.
Avoid platitudes like "I'm really interested in psychology" or,
for a counseling or clinical program, "I want to work with people."
Would you be applying for graduate school if you didn't feel that
way?
If you really want to do it right, TAILOR your letter for each
program you apply to. Say something about your background, your
accomplishments, what exactly about psychology interests you,
what you plan to do in the future BUT ALSO STATE EXACTLY WHY IT
IS YOU ARE APPLYING TO THAT PROGRAM. What is it about the program
that attracts you? How will it benefit you, and what do you have
to offer it? Be as specific as possible. If you are interested
in one or more of their faculty member's work, say so! If you
are interested in a particular program, say so! And explain why
you are interested!
Keep the letter short - maybe two or three pages, TYPED. Experiment
with being both creative and informative. Ask friends and professors
for comments on what you have written.
-- Field Work and Other Practical Experiences
Some graduate programs may be impressed by your having had some
substantial practical experience in a setting related to their
program. For example, experimental programs may find it appealing
that a student helped out with a professor's research project.
A developmental program may be impressed by someone who worked
with developmentally handicapped children. Clinical and counseling
psychology may think it is important that a student worked in
a mental health setting.
-- Required courses
Many programs will require that you have taken undergraduate courses
in psychology and a certain amount of credits in psychology. Courses
such as statistics and experimental psychology often are required.
If you will be completing the major in our department, you probably
will have no problem with this. But specialized programs may require
specialized courses. Check Graduate Study in Psychology
which will list the requirements for each graduate program.
-- Using the Shot gun Method
To maximize the possibility of getting in, apply to many schools
maybe twelve or more. Apply to a few really outstanding programs:
who knows, you may get lucky! Also apply to a few programs that
are less competitive, so you'll be guaranteed of receiving at
least one or two offers! And don't be too upset if you do get
rejected, because the odds are that some programs WILL reject
your application.
If you're willing to go to another part of the country, you will
have a wider selection of schools to apply to, and a better chance
of being accepted. There are very good programs in parts of the
country that people perceive to be less desirable areas to live.
-- Going for a Visit and Interviewing
If possible, go see the school even before you know whether or
not you are accepted. Talk to the faculty and students. It may
help you decide whether or not you want to be there. It also may
help you make an impression on them. Making a personal contact
can be very effective (even on the phone) as long as you are not
pressuring people or being a pest in some way!
Definitely try to visit the programs that accept you! Talk to
the faculty, find out everything you can about the program. Do
they feel like people you could work with? Are they friendly,
helpful, cold, obnoxious? Make a point of talking to beginning
and advanced students - they will tell you things that the faculty
may not.
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APPLYING NOW OR APPLYING LATER
Many students think that they should apply to graduate school
immediately after they finish their undergraduate work. If you
are the type of person who will lose steam (i.e., motivation)
after taking a year or two off, then maybe you should apply right
away. But it's not critical that you apply immediately. If you
take a year or two off to work, in order to make money for graduate
school or to get some experience in psychology, that could look
good in the eyes of the graduate program. They like motivated,
determined people. But if you drift from job to job, or if you
aren't working at all and just amble about with no rhyme or reason,
that might look bad.
Older students who have been working a number of years or raising
a family sometimes think they are in a one down position. Again,
this is not necessarily true. If there is evidence that you are
a conscientious and motivated person, then those are points in
your favor. Some counseling and clinical psychology programs prefer
older students. They believe they are more mature, responsible
people. Many counseling psychology programs are specifically designed
for older people who may be working full time and/or have families.
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MONEY
Education costs money. Graduate school is no exception. Many
programs may offer you some financial support. Some programs,
usually those at state universities, will support students for
the first few years in the form of "stipends." At large research
institutions your financial support is usually guaranteed for
a set number of years. Aside from scholarships and fellowships,
schools also offer "Research Assistantships" and "Teaching
Assistantships" both of which usually carry tuition waivers
and stipends.
For a "Research Assistantship" you help a professor conduct his
or her research. For a "Teaching Assistantship" you would help
a professor teach a course, or perhaps teach a section yourself.
You may not get as much money as you want but, you get what you
need (just enough to live on). Find out about stipends, teaching
and research assistantships, and tuition remission before you
decide to go to a program. Master's programs are less likely to
provide a large portion of support. Ph.D programs are usually
the ones that provide the bulk of the support to the graduate
student, and the more competitive the program the larger the support
will be, so keep this in mind.
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TIMETABLE
If you intend to go to graduate school right after you finish
your undergraduate work, here's a rough timetable for preparing
your applications:
Spring semester of your junior year:
· think about what type of program you're interested in
· start talking to the faculty
· if you haven't already done so, find out if you can get
involved in faculty research or an Independent Study project;
consider taking a fieldwork course
Summer before your senior year/early fall semester:
· look over Graduate Study in Psychology
· make a rough list of schools you might apply to
· start writing your personal statement · begin studying for
the GREs
· near the start of the semester, write to schools for information
about their programs
· as you receive this information, start making your final
list of schools you will apply to
· continue studying for the GREs
· IN OCTOBER TAKE THE GENERAL GRE, but if you feel ready the
sooner you take it the better, especially if you need to take
it again. But the Psychology Subject test is only offered
a couple of times each year, so be sure to get the dates and
prepare.
· ask professors to write letters of recommendation
· complete your applications and send them off
· deadlines may be in January, February, or March, depending
on the school
· if possible, visit the schools · pray for acceptances
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MASTERS PROGRAMS (may be full or
part time)
There are a variety of masters levels programs in fields related
to clinical and counseling psychology. Usually these programs
train people in basic counseling skills. Some programs may have
specialized areas of training such as marriage and family counseling,
drug addiction counseling, group counseling, vocational counseling,
family therapy, child therapy, divorce mediation, prison counseling,
etc. When it comes time to apply for jobs, it's very advantageous
to have an area of specialization.
People with masters degrees usually work in group counseling
practices, clinics, program for specific populations (drug abusers,
battered wives, chronic psychiatric patients, etc.), and employee
assistance programs. In many states people with masters degrees
CANNOT have their own private practice.
A Ph.D. may enable you to make more money and may open up different
doors for you, but it is not absolutely necessary to have one.
In many cases a masters degree may be ideal! In fact, with the
current rise of managed care systems in the field of mental health,
insurance companies may only pay for psychotherapy provided by
clinicians who are part of a group practice. While Ph.D.'s may
be in charge of the group, they may very well hire clinicians
with masters degrees to do therapy with the clients who are referred
to the group. It is very possible that psychotherapists with masters
degrees will be in greater demand in the future than they have
been in the past.
If you are determined to get a Ph.D., you can sometimes get a
masters degree from one school and then transfer to Ph.D. program
at another school. But you might lose credits. Some Ph.D. programs
also prefer to train students right from the start.
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COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY (Ed.D. or
Ph.D., usually 4 -5 years full time, longer if part time; sometimes
less difficult to get into than clinical psychology programs)
Counseling psychology programs usually emphasize training in
counseling/psychotherapy methods. These programs also include
some training in research methods (stat and experimental courses),
but usually are not as rigorous as in clinical psychology programs.
However, counseling programs that offer a Ph.D. rather than the
traditional Ed.D. often have intensified their research training.
Similar to clinical psychology programs, counseling programs require
internship experiences and a dissertation. In many cases, the
distinction between counseling and clinical psychology programs
is disappearing. A counseling program often is completely separate
from the psychology department at the university.
Some counseling programs are part time and tend to attract people
who are older, working, and/or have families. Counseling psychology
programs tend to be perceived as less prestigious than Ph.D. and
Psy.D. clinical psychology programs, although these perceptions
are based on bias rather than fact.
Counseling psychologists tend to work in group counseling practices,
private practice, and programs for special populations (mental
retardation, drug addicted, prison settings, battered wives, etc.).
Some counseling psychologists may teach at universities - usually
in graduate counseling psychology programs and less often at the
undergraduate level or in psychology departments.
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Ph.D. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY (5 years
minimum, usually longer; full time; difficult to get into)
These programs educate students about issues related to mental
health and mental health treatment. Many programs emphasize research
and will require you to take courses in statistics and experimental
design. You will be expected to conduct experimental research,
which will culminate in your dissertation. A dissertation is a
year long research project that you design and conduct on your
own (with help from a committee of faculty members).
Most programs are either behavioral, cognitive, biological, or
psychoanalytic in their approach. Some programs mix all of the
above. A few are humanistic\existential. During the first few
years in a clinical program you will get some training in psychotherapy
and psychological testing, but the most intense clinical training
usually comes later during an internship. A few Ph.D. clinical
psychology programs underplay the research component and spend
more time on training you to do psychotherapy. But most programs
weigh heavily on the research.
All clinical programs require you to do an internship, usually
in your fifth or sixth year. During that year you work full time
in a hospital, clinic, or mental health center. The internship
usually is separate from your graduate program. It may be in a
different part of the country. Usually it is up to you to apply
for an internship. Yes, it's another application and interviewing
process all over again!
Clinical psychologists usually end up teaching at universities,
working in hospitals and clinics, or in private practice.
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PSY.D. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY (4-5
years; full or part time; difficult to get into, but not as hard
as a Ph.D.)
These programs lead to the degree "Doctor of Psychology" rather
than the traditional Ph.D. ("Doctor of Philosophy"). They were
created as an alternative to Ph.D. clinical psychology programs.
They are designed for people who specifically want to practice
psychology and are not interested in quantitative research. There
is some research training, but much more time is spent on learning
the various aspects of clinical work (individual and group psychotherapy,
testing, marriage and family counseling, etc.). Usually more internship
type experiences in a wider variety of settings is required than
in Ph.D. programs.
Psy.D. clinical psychologists usually work in hospitals, clinics,
and private practice.
Psy.D. programs tend to have more students per class than Ph.D.
programs as many as 30 or 40, as compared to 5 or 10 in the Ph.D.
programs. The Psy.D. degree tends to be perceived as less prestigious
than the Ph.D., although this perception is based more on bias
than fact.
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CLINICAL SOCIAL WORK (MSW, 2-3 years
full time, longer if part time)
Social work programs are an alternative to psychology training.
"Clinical" social work programs teach students about working in
the mental health and social welfare systems. Training in counseling
and psychotherapy sometimes is not as extensive as in psychology
programs, especially PsyD programs. Research usually is not emphasized.
Many clinical social workers do individual and group psychotherapy.
Social work programs may be easy or difficult to get into depending
on the reputation of the university.
Clinical social workers work in hospitals, clinics, specialized
programs, and private practice. An MSW degree tends to be perceived
as less prestigious than a doctorate degree in psychology.
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SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY (approx. 4-5 years
for Ph.D. or Ed.D., 2-3 years for masters degree)
School psychologists are training to do counseling and psychological
testing in a school setting. Their strength, therefore, is their
understanding of school systems and education. They may work with
the children in the school or the staff. Some school psychologists
may also have a private practice. Some school psychology programs
offer the Ed.D. Others, which may place more emphasis on research
training, will offer the Ph.D.
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APA APPROVAL
Some counseling, school, and clinical psychology programs (Ph.D.
or Psy.D.) have been approved by the American Psychological Association.
This means that the program meets the APA guidelines for "good"
training. The APA book Graduate Study in Psychology will
tell you if a program is approved or not. It is much more difficult
to get into these programs. Graduating from them may open more
doors for you later on. But people from non APA approved programs
can still have productive, fulfilling careers.
If a program is not approved, it could mean several things. The
program may have lost its approval or has been unable to attain
it - which is a bad sign. Or the program may be in the process
of applying for approval - which is a good sign since it may be
an up and coming program. Or the program may not care about applying
for APA approval - which usually is a bad sign, although there
are a few excellent training facilities which aren't concerned
about APA approval.
Internships in clinical and counseling psychology also will be
APA approved or not. Usually APA approved internships prefer students
from APA approved graduate programs. Jobs in the mental health
field sometimes require that a person had an APA approved internship.
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PSYCHIATRY (M.D., approx. 3-4 years
of training after med school; full time, very difficult to get
into)
After completing medical school, a student can specialize in
psychiatry during his/her residency. Training is usually biological
in its approach (e.g., drug treatment) although some programs
endorse psychodynamic or behavioral therapy. Compared to psychology
programs, there is little training in research and psychological
testing.
Psychiatrists tend to work in hospitals, clinics, and private
practice. They usually work with more severely disturbed patients
(e.g., schizophrenia, major depression) although some psychiatrists
prefer working with neurotic patients. In hospital settings, psychiatrists
tend to be perceived as the most prestigious of the mental health
professionals.
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WORKING IN BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY
(Industrial/Organizational Psychology)
Some psychologists work in the business world doing psychological
assessments, testing, interpersonal mediation, group dynamic assessments,
and workshops (on stress, depression, communication skills, etc.).
These psychologists may be employed by a specific company or may
offer their services "free lance." Some graduate programs specialize
in Industrial/Organizational Psychology, although there are not
too many schools offering the degree right now, BUT it is GROWING!
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WORKING WITH A BACHELORS DEGREE
Believe it or not, people do get jobs in the mental health field
with a bachelors degree. Usually they work in specialized programs
- e.g., programs for chronic psychiatric patients, prison settings,
drug addictions, etc. This is often difficult work and does not
pay very well. People often use such jobs to get experience and
as stepping stones to other jobs. Some employee assistance programs
hire people with a B.A. or B.S.
LICENSING TO PRACTICE
PSYCHOLOGY (and having a "private" practice)
In order to practice psychology (and have your own practice)
you must be licensed by the state. Most states require approximately
two years of supervised experience AFTER you get your Ph.D., Psy.D.,
or Ed.D. You must also pass a national multiple choice exam and,
in many states, present a case study to a board of psychologists.
You cannot advertise yourself as a "psychologist" or say that
you offer "psychological" services unless you are licensed. These
terms are protected by law. Being licensed also enables you to
receive payment from your clients' insurance companies.
The A.P.A. recognizes four major specialties in applied psychology:
clinical, counseling, school, and industrial/organizational. All
professionals, regardless of their specialty, take the same state
licensing exam. If they pass the exam, all carry the same legal
title in the eyes of the state: "Psychologist"
Clinical social workers also are permitted to have private practices
as long as they have been licensed by the state.
In many states (but not all) people with masters degrees are
not permitted to have their own private practice.
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WHAT COURSES TO TAKE
What undergraduate courses should you take if you are interested
in someday becoming a counselor or psychotherapist? Courses that
constitute a psychology major are essential - especially those
pertaining to abnormal, social, and developmental psychology.
But, in a way there is NO course that is irrelevant! As a therapist
you will be working with people from all walks of life. It is
very helpful to know something about their particular work, interests,
and lifestyle. If you are working with an accountant, it helps
to know something about accounting. If you are working someone
who is Irish, it helps to know something about Irish history and
culture. A good psychotherapist is someone who is well rounded
in his or her knowledge! People are psychological, biological,
historical beings, so courses in literature, philosophy, history,
sociology, communications, art, biology, chemistry may all be
relevant. Think about what ultimately you want to be doing in
your career, and choose courses that fulfill and round out those
interests.
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY: Clinical psychologists assess and
treat people with psychological problems. They may act as therapists
for people experiencing normal psychological crises (e.g., grief)
or for individuals suffering from chronic psychiatric disorders.
Some clinical psychologists are generalists who work with a wide
variety of populations, while others work with specific groups
like children, the elderly, or those with specific disorders (e.g.,
schizophrenia). They may be found in hospitals, community health
centers, or private practice.
COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY: Counseling psychologists do many
of the same things that clinical psychologists do. However, counseling
psychologists tend to focus more on persons with adjustment problems,
rather than on persons suffering from severe psychological disorders.
Counseling psychologists are employed in academic settings, community
mental health centers, and private practice. Recent research tends
to indicate that training in counseling and clinical psychology
are very similar.
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: Developmental psychologists
study how we develop intellectually, socially, emotionally, and
morally during our lifespan. Some focus on just one period of
life (e.g., childhood or adolescence). Developmental psychologists
usually do research and teach in academic settings, but many act
as consultants to day-care centers, schools, or social service
agencies.
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: This area of specialization includes
a diverse group of psychologists who do research in the most basic
areas of psychology (e.g., learning, memory, attention, cognition,
sensation, perception, motivation, and language). Sometimes their
research in conducted with animals instead of humans. Most of
these psychologists are faculty members at colleges and universities.
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: Educational psychologists are
concerned with the study of human learning. They attempt to understand
the basic aspects of learning and then develop materials and strategies
for enhancing the learning process. For example, an educational
psychologist might study reading and develop a new technique for
teaching reading from the results of the research.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: Social psychologists study how our
beliefs, feelings, and behaviors are affected by other persons.
Some of the topics of interest to social psychologist are attitudes,
aggression, prejudice, love and interpersonal attraction. Most
social psychologists are on the faculty of colleges and universities,
but an increasing number are being hired by hospitals, federal
agencies, and businesses to perform applied research.
SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY: School psychologists are involved in
the development of children in educational settings. They are
typically involved in the assessment of children and recommendation
of actions to facilitate students' learning. They often act as
consultants to parents and administrators to optimize the learning
environments of specific students.
INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: Industrial/Organizational
(I/O) psychologists are primarily concerned with the relationships
between people and their work environments. They may develop new
ways to increase productivity or be involved in personnel selection.
You can find I/O psychologists in business, industry, government
agencies, and colleges and universities. I/O psychologists are
probable the most highly paid psychologists.
PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY: Physiological psychology is
one of psychology's hottest areas because of the recent dramatic
increase in interest in the physiological correlates of behavior.
These psychologists study both very basic processes (e.g., how
brain cells function) and more observable phenomena (e.g., behavior
change as a function of drug use or the biological/genetic roots
of psychiatric disorders). Some physiological psychologists continue
their education in clinical areas and work with people who have
neurological problems.
ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: Environmental psychologists
are concerned with the relations between psychological processes
and physical environments ranging from homes and offices to urban
areas and regions. Environmental psychologists may do research
on attitudes toward different environments, personal space, or
the effects on productivity of different office designs.
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY: Health psychologists are concerned
with psychology's contributions to the promotion and maintenance
of good health and the prevention and treatment of illness. They
design and conduct programs to help individuals stop smoking,
lose weight, manage stress, prevent cavities, or stay physically
fit. They are employed in hospitals, medical schools, rehabilitation
centers, public health agencies, and in private practice.
FAMILY PSYCHOLOGY: Family psychologists are concerned
with the prevention of family conflict, the treatment of marital
and family problems, and the maintenance of normal family functioning.
They design and conduct programs for marital enrichment, pre-marital
preparation, and improved parent-child relations. They also conduct
research on topics such as child abuse, family communications
patterns, and the effects of divorce and remarriage. Family psychologists
are often employed in medical schools, hospitals, community agencies,
and in private practice.
REHABILITATION PSYCHOLOGY: Rehabilitation psychologists
work with people who have suffered physical deprivation or loss
at birth or during later development as a result of damage or
deterioration of function (e.g., resulting from a stroke). They
help people overcome both the psychological and situational barriers
to effective functioning in the world. Rehabilitation psychologists
work in hospitals, rehabilitation centers, medical schools, and
in government rehabilitation agencies.
PSYCHOMETRICS and QUANTITATIVE PSYCHOLOGY: Psychometric
and quantitative psychologists are concerned with the methods
and techniques used to acquire and apply psychological knowledge.
A psychometrist revises old intelligence, personality, and aptitude
tests and devises new ones. Quantitative psychologist assist researchers
in psychology or other fields to design experiments or interpret
their results. Psychometrists and quantitative psychologists are
often employed in colleges and universities, testing companies,
private research firms, and government agencies.
PSYCHOLOGY AND THE LAW and FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY: Psychology
and the law studies legal issues from a psychological perspective
(e.g., how juries decide cases) and psychological questions in
a legal context (e.g., how jurors assign blame or responsibility
for a crime). Forensic psychologists are concerned with the applied
and clinical facets of the law such as determining a defendant's
competence to stand trial or if an accident victim has suffered
physical or neurological damage. Jobs in these areas are in law
schools, research organizations, community mental health agencies
, and correctional institutions.
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